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目标片段那么到了19世纪，俄罗斯崛起，俄罗斯是一个北方大国，那么他让俄罗斯的崛起让南北区分变得不再有意义了。于是欧洲人开始把俄罗斯划成东方，然后把自己划成西方，用东西区分取代了之前的南北区分。我要说的仅仅是西方这概念的出现，不是因为人们突然发现了一个客观存在的文明实体，而是因为既有的欧洲概念，不再满足政治滑解的需求。那么在对抗俄罗斯的过程中，欧洲人需要建立一种新的共同体。想象一部分欧洲思想家以法国为主的欧洲思想家开始有意识地使用西方来指称一个更为紧密、更加排他的联盟。
来源片段began to emerge. For instance, the idea of Ottomanism, which means that let's have a new identity called Ottomanism. It would be our upper identity. So the Jews and the Christians who may think to divorce from the empire with the separatist ideals of French Revolution, so they may stay in our empire. So the sub-identity would be Muslim, Christian, Jewish, and the upper
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the mainstream of European society, the liberalism of the late 19th century, or this really begins in the 18th century. That robbed Christian society, Herzl believed, almost of its sense of self. You always knew where you stood as a German Catholic, let's say, by knowing that the Jew was beneath you in the hierarchy, limited in profession, limited in place. When the Jew was no longer beneath you, you yourself didn't know where you stood in society. Herzl concluded that antisemitism was unfixable without Jews leaving, and he concluded that because of this sociological analysis of
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我在上一期第334期，俄罗斯如何逼迫欧洲人开始把自己定义成西方人里讲的主题是在19世纪以前的历史阶段，人们从来不用西方来进行自我描述。中世纪以及现代早期欧洲人更常使用的自我描述的词是Christentum基督教世界这个宗教性范畴。它把拉丁教会和其他信仰体系区分开来，或者他们会用欧洲这个地理和文化并存的概念，用来指称一个内部差异巨大。但是在对外关系的时候，拥有某种共同性的广泛的区域。
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would have been the opposite. And here we are in where it is very clear that Islam is backward. There's massive pressure by empires. The Russians and Ottomans fight what, four wars in the 19th century? Every single war ends with Russia taking some more territory. What we call today Ukraine is Ottoman territory, a great part of it, in the 18th century, in the 17th century. The Black Sea once upon a time was a Turkish lake. A Turkish lake, completely. And the Russian Empire slowly over time, war after war, and what the sultan wants is to play European power politics to protect the Ottoman Empire
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OK 回顾一下上一期播客，我讲的主题是真正的转变发生在19世纪。随着拿破仑战争的结束和维也纳体系的建立，欧洲内部的权力结构发生了变化，俄罗斯崛起成为了这个时期的关键变量。在此前欧洲在很大程度上可以包容俄罗斯。因为俄罗斯也是一个基督教国家，它是欧洲列强体系的一部分。但是随着俄罗斯的扩张性野心，它在东欧和中欧的影响力日益增强，就是慢慢慢慢的英国和法国，尤其是主要是法国启蒙思想家，感觉到欧洲这个概念变得过于宽泛，没有办法有效区分出我们和他们。
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weakness, the decline of governance, the collapse of any real capacity to actually govern and rule these areas. You know, the sick men of Europe could barely manage their affairs internally. And when World War I came around, the European armies cut through them like a knife through butter. There was nothing left of the Ottoman Empire. It was an empty shell. And so, that weakness, that weakness was arguably essential in the Jews' ability to establish a homeland in the land of Israel once again. Is that fair? Were the Ottomans ever pro-Zionist? Did I miss any part of the story?
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正因如此，德国是否属于西方？我们不能按照今天北约欧盟自由民主的制度标准倒推回去，至少在世界大战期间，这个问题本身就捕捉了代表了德国思想内部的危机意识。我知道我在上一期播客讨论西方问题的时候，关心的是俄罗斯崛起。但是到了这期播客，我们要意识到对于欧洲国家来说，他们当时面临了一个更加严峻、更加惨痛的新问题。第一次世界大战之后，西方自信崩塌了，西方哪怕把自己想象成西方，也不能把自己想象成是世界历史的顶点。